Chhayavad
Chhayavad (ISO: Chāyāvād) refers to the era of mystic-romanticism in Hindi literature, particularly Hindi poetry, spanning approximately from 1916 to 1938,[1] and was marked by an increase of romantic and humanist content. Chhayavad was marked by a renewed sense of the self and personal expression, visible in the writings of the time. It is known for its leaning towards themes of love and nature, as well as an individualistic reappropriation of the Indian tradition in a new form of mysticism, expressed through a subjective voice.
Definition
[edit]The term Chhayavad has been the subject of scholarly debate regarding its origins and meaning. Etymologically, it derives from the word chāyā, which carries various interpretations, including shade (from a tree or cloud), reflection (such as in a mirror), and shadow (cast by an object).[2]
The term chāyā appears in the Upanishad, where it refers to the universe as a phenomenal reflection of transcendental reality. This interpretation is supported by the broader intellectual environment of that time, when figures like Vivekananda and Rabindranath Tagore were revisiting the Upanishads and introducing modern interpretations of ancient texts.[3]
Some researchers have proposed that the term may have associated with the poetic style exemplified in Tagore's Gitanjali which itself was influenced by Romanticism of English literature.
Historical Context
[edit]Until the early 20th century, Hindi poetry followed traditions that had developed over several centuries across various medieval literary forms. The first attempts at modern standardized Hindi poetry, based on Khari Boli, emerged during a surge of literary activity in Varanasi in the 1860s, centered around the Bharatendu Harishchandra. It was primarily characterized by bhakti (religious devotion) or riti (courtly love) themes. The Bhartendu yug introduced innovations, such as using Braj verse in dramas to comment on contemporary issues, but these did not gain lasting traction.
A significant shift in Hindi poetry occurred with the founding of the magazine Sarasvatī in 1900, under the editorship of Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi. While initially appreciated more for its social and literary goals than for its aesthetic value, the Dwivedi yug marked a transformation in the content of Hindi poetry. Poets of this era moved away from the limited scope of rītī poetry and began addressing themes such as nationalism and social reform. A defining work of this period is Maithilisharan Gupt’s 1912 poem Bhārat-Bhāratī, which exemplifies the nationalist sentiment of the time. Dwivedi-era introduced didactic themes that shaped the discourse of Hindi literature through the second and third decades of the 20th century.
Simultaneously, a younger generation of poets emerged on the fringes of the literary establishment, rejecting both the ideal prosaic moral earnestness of Dwivedi-era poetry and the narrow scope of rītī traditions. Their reaction against earlier styles and themes led to a revolution in poetic sensibility, ultimately giving rise to the Chhayavad period, which spanned approximately from 1916 to 1938.[1][4]
Chhayavad continued until the latter half of the 1930s, when the golden era of modern Hindi poetry was gradually replaced by social didacticism inspired by rising nationalist fervour. Some of the later poets of this era, like Dinkar, Mahadevi and Bachchan took nationalist and social critiquing within their poetry.
Notable authors
[edit]Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala', Sumitranandan Pant and Mahadevi Varma are considered as the four pillars of the Chhayavadi school of Hindi literature.[5]
Jaishankar Prasad
[edit]Prasad was born in 1889 in Varanasi into a prosperous family with a strong association to Shaivism. His family’s enterprise was focused on the trade of snuff and tobacco. His early education began at home, studying Sanskrit, Hindi, Persian, and Urdu, before he got enrolled at Queens College.
He had a deep interest in religion, history, archaeology, and gardening. Music was a lifelong inclination, and he appreciated both classical forms and lighter styles. His works often include love in its diverse forms, the profound exploration of pain and anguish, the complexities of the human condition, the pursuit of spiritual ideals, and the examination of historical and mythological narratives.
Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala'
[edit]Nirala was born towards the end of the 19th century at Mahishadal in Midnapore in Bengal Presidency. He independently started deciphering the grammar of modern standard Hindi by studying two Hindi journals available to him in Bengal: Sarasvatī and Maryādā.
He revolutionized Hindi poetry by pioneering the use of free verse. Nirala's poetry illustrated a profound connection with the living spirits of nature. His mystical poems, rich with the devotion of medieval Bhakti poetry, explored nature within a metaphysical framework that aligned with his Advaita beliefs. Themes of minority subjectivity, social critique, and social upliftment also appeared frequently in his writings.
Sumitranandan Pant
[edit]Pant was born in Kausani in 1900. He grew up in a village and always cherished a love for the beauty and flavor of rural India, which is reflected in all his major works. He was known for romanticism in his poems which were inspired by nature, people and beauty within.
Mahadevi Varma
[edit]Verma was born on 26 March 1907 in Farrukhabad, Uttar Pradesh. She significantly impacted Hindi literature by refining the language and infusing poetry with heartfelt acceptance of Indian philosophy.
Her unique blend of emotional intensity, lyrical simplicity, and evocative imagery, along with her contributions as a translator and scholar, solidified her position as a leading figure of the Chhayavad movement. Her poetry, along with her work towards social upliftment and women's education, were depicted in her writings. These works greatly influenced both readers and critics.
Others
[edit]Other important figures of this literary movement were Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar', Harivansh Rai Bachchan, Makhanlal Chaturvedi and Pandit Narendra Sharma.
Notable works
[edit]Jaishankar Prasad's Kamayani (1936), Aansu, Nirala's anthologies like Anamika (featuring iconic poems such as Ram Ki Shakti Puja and Saroj Smriti), Parimal, Naye Patte, long poem Tulsidas, Mahadevi's Rashmi, Neerja, Deepshikha, and Yaama, and Pant's Pallav and Gunjan, along with Harivansh Rai Bachchan's Madhushala (1935), are considered some of the important works of this school.
Reception
[edit]Initially, Chhayavad was very well received by readers and critics alike. However, subsequent scholars have criticized Chhayavad for excessive use of decorative language, romanticism aloof from contemporary social and economic malaise, and setting stricter rules on meter and rhyme.[citation needed]
Harivansh Rai Bachchan became excessively critical of Chhayavad later in his career and was associated with other genres like Rahasyavaad and Pragativaad.
Notes
[edit]- ^ a b Hindi Language
- ^ Rubin, David (1998). The Return of Sarasvati: Four Hindi Poets. Oxford University Press. p. 11. ISBN 9780195643695.
- ^ Ritter, Valerie (2011). Kāma's Flowers: Nature in Hindi Poetry and Criticism, 1885-1925. State University of New York Press. pp. 220–221. ISBN 9781438435671.
- ^ Historical Development of Hindi Archived 14 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
- ^ "Chhayavaadi Movement". Archived from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 29 April 2008.
References
[edit]- Romantic Poetry in the Era of Convention
- Chhayavad study in The Journal of the American Oriental Society, Jul 1, 2001
- 1 Now available in Vani Prakashan, New Delhi
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